1. The Battle of Ain Jalut and the Salvation of Islamic Civilization (1260 AD)
After the fall of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate, in 1258 CE and Hulagu's invasion of the Levant, he sent his messengers to Egypt with letters threatening destruction:
- Sultan Qutuz's position: Qutuz killed the messengers of Hulagu and bowed their heads at the gate of Zuwayla to announce the war and made his famous speech to the princes: "Who will be among the Muslims after us?";
- Facing the Mongols: Qutuz did not wait in Egypt, but the Egyptian army crossed the border into Palestine and met the Mongol army led by “Kutbugha” at Marj Ain Jalut (25 Ramadan, 658 AD / September 1260 AD).
- Historic victory: Al-Zahir Baibars led the vanguard of the army and attracted the Mongols, then Qutuz threw his helmet and shouted "Wa Islam!" He launched an all-out attack that destroyed the Mongol army, dealing the Mongols the first crushing defeat in their history.
2. The era of Al-Zahir Baibars and Al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun
Sultan al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari is considered the true founder of the Mamluk state:
- Revival of the Abbasid Caliphate: One of the Abbasid sons swore allegiance to a caliph in Cairo in 1261 AD. C., which gave the sultans of Egypt religious legitimacy throughout the world.
- Liquidation of Crusader strongholds: the conquest of Jaffa, Haifa, Qalaat al-Hosn and greater Antioch in 1268 AD;
- The era of Al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun (r. three times between 1293 and 1341 AD): the longest, richest and most stable era of the Bahri Mamluks. It witnessed an architectural boom that saw the construction of the Al-Ablaq Palace, the Al-Nasser Muhammad Mosque in the Citadel, and more than thirty major universities and schools in Cairo.
3. Masterpieces of Mamluk architecture: Sultan Hassan and the Qalawun group
Mamluk architecture in Cairo reached a high degree of architectural and decorative maturity:
- Sultan Hassan Mosque and School (1356-1363 AD): Built by Sultan Hassan bin Al-Nasser Muhammad in Rumaila Square, in front of the citadel. It is characterized by its enormous mass of stone, its 38-meter-high gate, its patio with four vertical ivans, its majestic dome and its 84-meter-high minaret. Western architectural historians considered it the crown of Islamic architecture on earth.
- Sultan Al-Mansur Qalawun Complex (1284-1285 AD): Located in the heart of Al-Mu'izz Street, it includes three unique facilities: a funerary dome with huge interlocking granite and marble columns, a school to teach law, and a majestic clinic to treat the sick.
- Mamluk Decorations: The architects used Ablaq marble (alternating white and black/red), hanging stone muqarnas and star-shaped wooden bowls inlaid with ivory.
4. The era of the Circassian Mamluks (Burja) and Sultan Qaytbay (1382-1517 AD)
In 1382 AD, power passed to the Circassian Mamluks, who resided in the towers of the citadel (the Tower Mamluks) and were led by Sultan al-Zahir Barquq:
- Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay (1468-1496 AD): Mamluk knight architect; He built the citadel of Qaitbay in Alexandria (1477 AD) on the site of ancient Phanar to protect the ports from Ottoman attacks, and built his famous group of tombs in the Mamluk desert with a stone dome decorated with the most beautiful floral and geometric decorations in the world.
- Sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri (1501-1516 AD): built the al-Ghuri religious and commercial complex in the al-Ghuriyya district (Wekalet al-Ghuri, the Dome, the Madrassah and the Sabil).
5. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and the fall of the Mamluk state (1517 AD)
In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors discovered the route to the Cape of Good Hope (AD 1498), and European ships circumnavigated Africa and avoided Egyptian ports, dealing a severe blow to the finances and transit revenues of the Mamluk state.
The Ottoman Sultan Selim I took advantage of the Mamluks' weakness and defeated Qansuh al-Ghuri's army at the Battle of Marj Dabiq north of Aleppo in 1516 AD. The Ottoman army then marched into Egypt and faced the Mamluks led by the brave Sultan Tuman Bey at the Battle of Raydaniya (January 1517 AD) in Abbasiya.
Despite Tuman Bey's legendary bravery, superior Ottoman artillery and fire decided the battle, and Tuman Bey was arrested amidst the mourning and crying of the people of Cairo and hanged at Bab Zuweila, ushering Egypt into the Ottoman era.
Historical, geopolitical context and civilizational development.
The study of this era and its turning points is an essential basis for understanding the political, social and cultural changes that Egypt has experienced throughout its long history. Historical records and documents preserved in the National Library and National Archives, as well as records of academic excavations, demonstrated how the state was able to manage its strategic resources at the time, dispatch mining and trading expeditions and secure regional borders, contributing to unprecedented prosperity in the arts, sciences and architecture.
This era was marked by a notable development in administrative and religious thought, since the inscriptions and diplomatic correspondence exchanged reflected a complex network of international relations and regional alliances. Internal stability also contributed to the support of important architectural projects and the establishment of civil and religious institutions, evidence of which remains to this day and embodies a unique combination of authentic Egyptian heritage and the influences of neighboring civilizations.
Importance of contemporary heritage and the role of academic research
Specialized international universities and research centers, in collaboration with Egyptian researchers, continue to reread the inscriptions and study the collections using spectroscopy and 3D digital modeling techniques. These technologies make it possible to reveal details about the phases of construction, reuse and development in successive eras that are invisible to the naked eye, enriching the historical encyclopedia with documented information that refutes old and inaccurate hypotheses.
Practical recommendations for exploring the milestones associated with this era.
To complete the comprehensive cultural panorama, Ultra Egypt Travel consultants recommend combining visits to field monuments with viewing archaeological collections in major museums (such as the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization), as viewing works of art, everyday objects and original manuscripts provides a complete and deep understanding of the spirit of that era and its achievements.
Academic and official sources and references.
This encyclopedic content has been prepared and verified based on the latest archaeological records and field reports from official organizations and accredited international references:
- K. A. S. Creswell (K.A.C. Creswell): The Muslim Architecture of Egypt (2 vols.), Oxford University Press.
- D. Doris Behrens-Abouseif: Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction, Islamic Architecture in Mamluk and Ottoman Cairo.
- Taqi al-Din al-Maqrizi (Al-Maqrizi): Sermons and Reflections Mentioning Plans and Implications (Plans of al-Maqrizi), published by the National Library and Archives, Cairo.
- World Heritage Center - UNESCO: Record of registration of historic Cairo and decisions on the preservation of the archaeological urban fabric, Paris.
- Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities: Records of the project for the development of historic Cairo and the restoration of the walls, gates and mosques of the Fatimid and Mamluk periods.
Are you planning a detailed expedition into the history and civilization of Egypt?
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