1. The establishment of the Ayyubid state and the reunification of Egypt and the Levant (1171-1174 AD)
After his announcement of the end of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171 AD, Sultan Al-Nasir Saladin Yusuf bin Ayyub laid the foundation for the Ayyubid state in Egypt:
- Restoration of Sunni teachings and establishment of schools: Saladin transformed the educational system by establishing law schools such as the Nasiriyah School and the Sufi School.
- Unification of the Islamic Front: After the death of Nur al-Din Mahmoud in 1174 AD, Saladin invaded Damascus and then Aleppo and annexed Yemen and the Hejaz, creating a unified front around the Crusader kingdoms in Palestine and the Levant.
- Abolition of excise taxes and development of trade: He abolished illegal taxes and ensured Hajj caravans and international trade through the Red Sea and Alexandria.
2. Construction of the Mountain Citadel and the Great Walls of Cairo (1176 AD)
Drawing on his military experience, Saladin realized that the Fatimid walls only protected Cairo, leaving Fustat, the army, and ancient Egypt vulnerable to Crusader raids. He decided on a huge defense project:
- Choosing the location of Mount Mokattam: He chose a rocky hill overlooking Cairo, Fustat and the Nile to build his fortified castle, known as Hill Castle (Citadel of Salah al-Din), as a military headquarters and seat of government, which was used until the era of Khedive Ismail.
- The Wall of Unity: He commissioned his minister Bahaa al-Din Qaraqoush to build a large stone wall that would surround Cairo, Fustat and the Citadel into a military fortress.
- Youssef Spiral Well: Engineers dug a huge well into the Mokattam rock on two levels connected by spiral staircases powered by waterwheels and cows to extract fresh water from the ground.
3. The Battle of Hattin and the Liberation of Jerusalem (1187 AD)
The Egyptian armies, along with their Levantine counterparts led by Saladin, set out to confront the allied crusader army at Tiberias in the spring of 1187 AD:
On the 25th of Rabi' al-Akhir, 583 AD. (July 4, 1187 AD), the immortal battle of Hattin took place. Saladin besieged the Crusader army at Haruz Hattin, cutting off the water of Lake Tiberias and setting fire to dry grass, which scattered their ranks, devastatingly defeated them, and captured the king of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan, and Arnat (Reynald de Chatillon).
On the 27th of Rajab in the year 583 AD. C. (the anniversary of Isra and Miraj), Saladin entered Jerusalem as a liberator after 88 years of Crusader occupation and set a wonderful example of tolerance to the world by sparing the blood of the population, maintaining churches and freeing prisoners.
Fourth Crusade against Egypt (Fifth and Seventh Campaigns)
After Hattin, European leaders realized that the key to Jerusalem and the Levant lay in breaking Egypt's power. They directed their campaigns towards the Egyptian coasts:
- The Fifth Crusade (1218-1221 AD): Damietta was occupied for three years, but King Al-Kamil bin Al-Adil lured them into and around the delta, opened dams and canals, and forced them to evacuate completely without restrictions or conditions.
- The Seventh Crusade (1249-1250 AD): Led by King Louis IX. of France, occupied Damietta with a huge military force and advanced towards Mansoura with the aim of entering Cairo.
- The death of Al-Salih Ayoub and the role of Shajarat Al-Durr: Sultan Al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub died during the siege, so his wife Shajarat al-Durr concealed the news of his death with amazing military wisdom so that the morale of the soldiers did not collapse, and directed the direction of the battle in collaboration with the Mamluk naval commanders (Faris al-Din Oktay and Rukn al-Din Baybars).
5. The Battle of Mansura and the end of the Ayyubid era (1250 AD)
On February 8, 1250 AD, Crusader knights led by Robert d'Artois, the king's brother, attacked the city of Mansoura. The Bahri Mamelukes opened the city gates and lured them into the narrow streets, then joined them, killed their leader and destroyed most of their knights.
In the subsequent Battle of Fariskur, the Crusader army was completely destroyed and the French king Louis IX. He was captured and held in the house of Judge Ibrahim bin Luqman in Mansoura. He was only freed when a huge ransom was paid and the crusaders were evacuated from Damietta.
With the assassination of Turan Shah ibn al-Salih Ayyub by the Mamluk princes, the rule of the Ayyubid state in Egypt ended and the Mamluk state of Bahri was founded under the leadership of Shajarat al-Durr and Izz al-Din Aybak.
Historical, geopolitical context and civilizational development.
The study of this era and its turning points is an essential basis for understanding the political, social and cultural changes that Egypt has experienced throughout its long history. Historical records and documents preserved in the National Library and National Archives, as well as records of academic excavations, demonstrated how the state was able to manage its strategic resources at the time, dispatch mining and trading expeditions and secure regional borders, contributing to unprecedented prosperity in the arts, sciences and architecture.
This era was marked by a notable development in administrative and religious thought, since the inscriptions and diplomatic correspondence exchanged reflected a complex network of international relations and regional alliances. Internal stability also contributed to the support of important architectural projects and the establishment of civil and religious institutions, evidence of which remains to this day and embodies a unique combination of authentic Egyptian heritage and the influences of neighboring civilizations.
Importance of contemporary heritage and the role of academic research
Specialized international universities and research centers, in collaboration with Egyptian researchers, continue to reread the inscriptions and study the collections using spectroscopy and 3D digital modeling techniques. These technologies make it possible to reveal details about the phases of construction, reuse and development in successive eras that are invisible to the naked eye, enriching the historical encyclopedia with documented information that refutes old and inaccurate hypotheses.
Practical recommendations for exploring the milestones associated with this era.
To complete the comprehensive cultural panorama, Ultra Egypt Travel consultants recommend combining visits to field monuments with viewing archaeological collections in major museums (such as the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization), as viewing works of art, everyday objects and original manuscripts provides a complete and deep understanding of the spirit of that era and its achievements.
Academic and official sources and references.
This encyclopedic content has been prepared and verified based on the latest archaeological records and field reports from official organizations and accredited international references:
- K. A. S. Creswell (K.A.C. Creswell): The Muslim Architecture of Egypt (2 vols.), Oxford University Press.
- D. Doris Behrens-Abouseif: Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction, Islamic Architecture in Mamluk and Ottoman Cairo.
- Taqi al-Din al-Maqrizi (Al-Maqrizi): Sermons and Reflections Mentioning Plans and Implications (Plans of al-Maqrizi), published by the National Library and Archives, Cairo.
- World Heritage Center - UNESCO: Record of registration of historic Cairo and decisions on the preservation of the archaeological urban fabric, Paris.
- Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities: Records of the project for the development of historic Cairo and the restoration of the walls, gates and mosques of the Fatimid and Mamluk periods.
Are you planning a detailed expedition into the history and civilization of Egypt?
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